Proto-Indo-Iranian language

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Proto-Indo-Iranian is the reconstructed proto-language of the Indo-Iranian branch of Indo-European. Its speakers, the hypothetical Proto-Indo-Iranians, are assumed to have lived in the late 3rd millennium BC, and are usually connected with the early Andronovo archaeological horizon.

Proto-Indo-Iranian was a Satem language, likely removed less than a millennium from the late Proto-Indo-European language, and in turn removed less than a millennium from the Vedic Sanskrit of the Rigveda. It is the ancestor of the Indo-Aryan languages, the Iranian languages, the Dardic languages and the Nuristani languages.

1 Descriptive phonology
2 Historical phonology
3 Subsequent sound changes
4 See also
5 Notes
6 Bibliography

Descriptive phonology

**Proto-Indo-Iranian consonant segments**
		Labial	Coronal		Palatal		Velar	Laryngeal
		Labial	dental/ alveolar	post- alveolar	first	second	Velar	Laryngeal
Plosive	voiceless	*p	*t		*ĉ	*č	*k
	voiced	*b	*d		*ĵ	*ǰ	*g
	aspirated	*bʰ	*dʰ		*ĵʰ	*ǰʰ	*gʰ
Fricative	voiceless		*s	*š				*H
Fricative	voiced		(*z)	(*ž)
Nasal		*m	*n
Liquid			*l	r r̥
Semivowel						*y	*w

**PII vowel segments**
High	i ī u ū
Low	a ā

In addition to the vowels, *H, and *r̥ could function as the syllabic core.

Two palatal series

Proto-Indo-Iranian is hypothesized to contain two series of stops or affricates in the palatal to postalveolar region.^[1] The following table shows the most common reflexes and origins of the two series (Proto-Iranian is the hypothetical ancestor to the Iranian languages, including Avestan and Old Persian):^[2]^[3]

PIE	PII	Sanskrit	Proto-Iranian	Avestan	Old Persian	Nuristani
*k̂	*ĉ	ś ([ɕ])	*ts	s	θ	ċ ([ts]) / š
*ĝ	*ĵ	j ([ɟ])	*dz	z	d	j ([dz]) / z
*ĝʰ	*ĵʰ	h ([ɦ])	*dz	z	d	j ([dz]) / z
*k/kʷ	*č	c	*č	č	č	č
*g/gʷ	*ǰ	j ([ɟ])	*ǰ	ǰ	ǰ	ǰ / ž
*gʰ/gʷʰ	*ǰʰ	h ([ɦ])	*ǰ	ǰ	ǰ	ǰ / ž

Laryngeal

Proto-Indo-European is usually hypothesized to have three to four laryngeal consonants, each of which could occur in either syllabic or non-syllabic position. In Proto-Indo-Iranian, the laryngeals merged together as one phoneme /*H/. Beekes suggests that some instances of this /*H/ survived into Avestan as unwritten glottal stops.^[4]

Accent

Like Proto-Indo-European and Vedic Sanskrit (and also Avestan, though it was not written down^[5]), Proto-Indo-Iranian had a pitch accent, indicated by an acute accent over the accented vowel.

Historical phonology

The most distinctive phonological change separating Proto-Indo-Iranian from Proto-Indo-European is the collapse of the ablauting vowels *e, *o, *a into a single vowel, Proto-Indo-Iranian *a (but see Brugmann's law). Grassmann's law, Bartholomae's law, and the Ruki sound law were also complete in Proto-Indo-Iranian.

A fuller list of some of the hypothesized sound changes from Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Indo-Iranian follows:

The Satem shift, consisting of two sets of related changes. The PIE palatals *k̂ *ĝ *ĝʰ are fronted or affricated, eventually resulting in PII *ĉ, *ĵ, *ĵʰ, while the PIE labiovelars *kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ merge with the velars *k *g *gʰ.^[6]

PIE	PII	Sanskrit	Avestan	Polish	Latin
*k̂m̥tóm	*ĉatám	śatám	satəm	sto	centum	"hundred"
*ĝónu	*ĵā́nu	jā́nu	zānu	kolano	genu	"knee"
*ĝʰéi-mn̥	*ĵʰimá-	himá-	zima-	zima	hiems	"winter" / "snow"
*kʷó-	*ká-	ká-	kō	co, kto	quis	"who?, what?"
*gʷou-	*gau-	go	gau-	wół	bos, bovis	"cow"
*gʷʰormó-	*gʰarmá-	gharmá-	garəma-	żar	formus	"warmth, heat"

The PIE syllabic liquids *l̥, *r̥ merge as *r̥.^[7]

PIE	PII	Sanskrit	Avestan	Polish	Latin
*wĺ̥kʷo-	*wŕ̥ka-	*vŕ̥ka-	vəhrka-	wilk	lupus	"wolf"

The PIE syllabic nasals *m̥ *n̥ merge with *a.^[7]

PIE	PII	Sanskrit	Avestan	Latin
*k̂m̥tóm	*ĉatám	śatám	satəm	centum	"hundred"
*mn̥tó-	*matá	matá-		mens, mentis	"thinking"

Bartholomae's law: an aspirate immediately followed by a voiceless consonant becomes voiced stop + voiced aspirate. In addition, dʰ + t > dzdʰ.^[8]

PIE	PII	Sanskrit	Avestan
*ubʰto-	*ubdʰa-		ubdaēna	"weaved" / "made of weaved material"
*urdʰto-	*urdzdʰa-	vr̥ddʰá-	vrzda-	"complete/mature"
*augʰ-tá-	*augdʰá-	*óhate	*augda	"he said"

The Ruki rule: *s is retracted to *š when immediately following *r *r̥ *u *k or *i. Its allophone *z likewise becomes *ž.^[7]

PIE	PII	Sanskrit	Avestan
*wers-	*warš-	varṣman-		"summit"
*pr̥sto-	*pr̥šta-	pr̥ṣṭhá-	paršta	"back" / "backbone"
*ǵeus-	*ĵauš-	joṣati	zaošō	"taste"
*kʷsep-	kšap- (< ksep)	kṣāp	xšap	"darkness"
*wis-	*wiš-	viṣa-	viša-	"poison"
*nisdo-	*nižda-	nīḍa-		"nest"

Before a dental occlusive, *ĉ becomes *š and *ĵ becomes *ž. *ĵʰ also becomes *ž, with aspiration of the occlusive.^[9]

PIE	pre-PII	PII	Sanskrit	Avestan
*h₂ok̂tṓ	*oĉtṓ)	*aštā́	aṣṭaú	ašta	"eight"
*h₃mr̥ĝt-	*mr̥ĵd-	*mr̥žd-	mr̥ḍīká-	mərəžḍīka	"wiped away" / "pardon"
*uĝʰtó-	*uĵʰtó-	*uždʰá-	ūḍhá-		"carried"

The sequence *ĉs was simplified to *šš.^[10]

PIE	pre-PII	PII	Sanskrit	Avestan	Latin
*h₂ék̂s-	*áĉs-	*ášš-	ákṣa-	aši-	axis	"shoulder" / "axle"

The "second palatalization" or "law of palatals": *k *g *gʰ develop palatal allophones *č *ǰ *ǰʰ before the front vowels *i, *e.^[8]

PIE	pre-PII	PII	Sanskrit	Avestan
*kʷe	*ke	*ča	ca	ča	"and"
*gʷíh₃weti	*gíh₃weti	*ǰī́wati	jī́vati	jvaiti	"lives"
*gʷʰénti	*gʰénti	*ǰʰánti	hánti	jainti	"slays"

Brugmann's law: *o in an open syllable lengthens to *ō. ^[11]

PIE	pre-PII	PII	Sanskrit	Avestan	Latin
*deh₃tór-m	*deh₃tṓr-m	*dātā́ram	dātā́ram	dātāram	dator	"giver" (acc. sg.)

The vowels *e *o merge with *a. Similarly, *ē, *ō merge with *ā. This has the effect of giving full phonemic status to the second palatal series *č *ǰ *ǰʰ.

PIE	PII	Sanskrit	Avestan
*kʷe	ča (< če)	ca	ča	"and"
*gʷʰormó-	*gʰarmá-	gharmá-	garəma-	"heat"
*bʰréh₂tēr	*bʰrā́tār	bhrā́tā	brātā	"brother"
*wōkʷs	*wākš	vāk	vāxš	"voice"

In certain positions, laryngeals were vocalized to *i. This preceded the second palatalization.^[12]^[13]
- Following a consonant, and preceding a consonant cluster

PIE	PII	Sanskrit	Avestan
*ph₂trei	*pitrai	pitre	piθrai	"father" (dative singular)

Following a consonant and word-final

PIE	PII	Sanskrit	Avestan
*-medʰh₂	*-madʰi	-mahi	-madi	(1st person plural middle ending)

The Indo-European laryngeals all merged into one phoneme *H, which may have been a glottal stop. This was probably contemporary with the merging of *e and *o with *a.^[14]

PIE	PII	Sanskrit	Avestan
*ph₂tér	*pHtā́	pitā́	ptā	"father" (nominative singular)

According to Lubotsky's Law, *H disappeared when followed by a voiced nonaspirated stop and another consonant:^[15]

PIE	PII	Sanskrit	Avestan
*bʰeh₂g-	bʰag- ( < bʰaHg- )	bʰag-	baxša	"distribute"

Subsequent sound changes

Among the sound changes from Proto-Indo-Iranian to Indo-Aryan is the loss of the voiced sibilant *z, among those to Iranian is the de-aspiration of the PIE voiced aspirates.

Proto-Indo-European and Indo-Iranian Phonological Correspondences^[16]
PIE		OInd/VS	Av	PIE	OInd/VS	Av
*p	>	p	p	*ph̥_atēr "father"	pitā́ "father"	pitar- "father"
*b	>	b	b	*bel- "strong"	bálam "strength"	-
*bh	>	bh	b	*bhréh_atēr "brother"	bhrā́tār- "brother"	brātar- "brother
*t	>	t	t	*tuh_xóm "thou"	tuvám "thou"	tvəm "thou"
*d	>	d	d	*doru "wood"	dā́ru "wood"	dāru- "wood"
*dh	>	dh	d	*dhoh_xneh_a- "grain"	dhānā́- "grain"	dāna- "grain"
*k̂	>	ś	s	*dék̂m̥ "ten"	dáśa "ten"	dasa "ten"
*ĝ	>	j	z	*ĝónu "knee"	jā́nu "knee"	zānu- "knee"
*ĝh	>	h	z	*ĝhimós "cold"	himá- "cold, frost"	zəmaka- "winterstorm"
*k	>	k ~ c	x ~ č	*kruh_arós "bloody"	krūrá- "bloody"	xrūra- "bloody"
				*téket "may he run"	-	tačat̰ "may he run"
*g	>	g ~ j	g ~ ǰ	*h_aéuges- "strength"	ójas- "strength"	aoǰah "strength"
				*h_augrós "strong"	ugrá- "strong"	ugra- "strong"
*gh	>	gh ~ h	g ~ ǰ	*dl̥h_xghós "long"	dīrghá- "long"	darəga- "long"
				*dleh_xghistos "longest"	-	draǰišta- "longest"
*k^w	>	k ~ c	k ~ č	*k^wós "who"	káḥ "who"	kō "who"
				*k^we "and"	ca "and"	́ča "and"
*g^w	>	g ~ j	g ~ ǰ	*g^wou- "cow"	gav- "cow"	gau- "cow"
				*g^wih₃uós "alive"	jīvá- "alive"	OPer: ǰīva - "living"
*g^wh	>	gh ~ h	g ~ ǰ	*g^whnénti "strike" (pl.)	ghnánti "strike" (pl.)	-
				*g^whénti "strikes"	hánti "strikes"	ǰainti "strikes"
*s	>	s	s ~ h	*septm̥ "seven"	saptá "seven"	hapta "seven"
				*asti "is"	asti "is"	asti "is"
*i̥	>	y	y	*i̥ugóm "yoke"	yuga'm "yoke"	yuga- "yoke"
*u̥	>	v	v	*u̥éĝheti "drives, rides"	váhati "drives"	vazaiti "travels"
*m	>	m	m	*méh_atēr "mother"	mātár- "mother"	mātar- "mother"
*n	>	n	n	*nos "us"	nas "us"	nō "us"
*l	>	l ~ r	r	*k^weleti "moves"	carati "moves"	caraiti "moves"
*r	>	r	r	*bhreh_atēr "brother"	bhrā́tār- "brother"	brātar- "brother
*n̥	>	a	a	*n̥- "un-"	a- "un-"	a- "un-"
*m̥	>	a	a	*k̂m̥tóm "hundred"	s'atám "hundred"	satəm "hundred"
*l̥	>	r̥	ərər	*u̥l̥k^wos "wolf"	vĺ̥ka- "wolf"	vəhrka- "wolf"
*r̥	>	r̥	ərər	*k̂r̥d- "heart"	hŕ̥d- "heart"	zərəd- "heart"
*i	>	i	i	*linék^wti "leaves"	riṇákti "leaves"	irinaxti "releases"
*e	>	a	a	*dék̂m̥ "ten"	dáśa "ten"	dasa "ten"
*ē	>	ā	ā	*h_anḗr "man"	nā "man"	nā "man"
*a	>	a	a	*h_aéĝeti "drives"	ájati "drives"	azaiti "drives"
*ā	>	ā	ā	*méh_atēr "mother"	mātā́ "mother"	mātar- "mother"
*o	>	a ~ ā	a ~ ā	*ĝómbhos "tooth, peg"	jā́mbha- "tooth, tusk"	-
				*ĝónu "knee"	jānu "knee"	zānu- "knee"
*ō	>	ā	ā	*dhoh_xneh_a- "grain"	dhānā́- "grain"	dāna- "grain"
*u	>	u	u	*iugóm "yoke"	yugám "yoke"	yuga- "yoke"
*ū	>	ū	ū	*mū́s "mouse"	mū́ṣ- "mouse"	NPer mūs "mouse"
*h₁	>	⊘	⊘	*h₁ésti "is"	ásti "is"	asti "is"
*h₂	>	⊘	⊘	*h₂r̥tk̂os "bear"	r̥'kṣa- "bear"	arəša- "bear"
*h₃	>	⊘	⊘	*h₃ók^ws(i) "eye"	ákṣi "eye"	aši "eye"
*h₄	>	⊘	⊘	*h₄órĝhis "testicle"	-	ərəzi- "testicle"

Proto-Indo-Iranian	Old Iranian (OP, Av)	Old Indic/Vedic Sanskrit
*aĉwa- ("horse")	Av, OP aspa	aśva
*bʰag-	OP baj- (bāji; "tribute")	bhag- (bhaga)
*bʰrātr- ("brother")	OP brātar	bhrātṛ
*bʰūmī ("earth", "land")	OP būmi	bhūmī
*martya ("mortal, "man")	OP martya	martya
*māsa ("moon")	OP māha	māsa
*wāsara ("early")	OP vāhara ("spring")	vāsara ("morning")
*arta ("truth")	Av aša, OP arta	ṛta
*draugʰ- ("falsehood")	Av druj, OP draug-	druh-
*sauma "pressed (juice)"	Av haoma	soma

Notes

^ Burrow, pp. 78-79
^ Ramat, Anna Giacalone (1998.). The Indo-European Languages (illustrated ed.). London ; New York: Routledge,. pp. 134. ISBN 041506449X. http://books.google.com/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C.
^ Cardona, George; Dhanesh Jain (2003). The Indo-Aryan Languages. London ; New York: Routledge. pp. 24. ISBN 0700711309. http://books.google.com/books?id=mK4kEuDXySIC.
^ Beekes (1988), p. 50
^ Beekes, p. 55
^ Burrow, pp. 74-75
^ ^a ^b ^c Fortson, p. 182
^ ^a ^b Fortson, p. 181
^ Burrow, p. 91
^ Burrow, pp. 92-94
^ Fortson, p. 183
^ Beekes, pp, 85-86
^ Lubotsky, p. 53
^ get ref
^ Beekes, pp. 88-89
^ "Indo-Iranian Languages." Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Ed. J.P. Mallory and D.Q. Adams. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn, 1997. pp. 305.

Bibliography

Beekes, Robert Stephen Paul (1988). A Grammar of Gatha-Avestan. Leiden; New York: Brill. ISBN 9004083324. http://books.google.com/books?id=ysQUAAAAIAAJ.
Burrow, T. (2001). The Sanskrit Language (1st Indian ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 8120817672. http://books.google.com/books?id=cWDhKTj1SBYC.
Fortson, Benjamin W. (2004). Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction (illustrated ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405103167. http://books.google.com/books?id=5hOtPBF6XWwC.
Lubotsky, A. M. (1988). The System of Nominal Accentuation in Sanskrit and Proto-Indo-European. Leiden; New York: Brill. ISBN 9004088350. http://books.google.com/books?id=6jBnmLnhXWwC.
Alexander Lubotsky, "The Indo-Iranian substratum" in Early Contacts between Uralic and Indo-European, ed. Carpelan et al., Helsinki (2001).
Asko Parpola, 'The formation of the Aryan branch of Indo-European', in Blench and Spriggs (eds), Archaeology and Language III, London and New York (1999).